L'évolution dans la continuité

Le Nouvel Observateur, 24 avril 2008

La «continuité évolutive»

Le passage du règne de la nature à celui de la culture s'est fait sans rupture, sans discontinuité, mais dans une continuité évolutive. Il n'y a pas de premiers vertébrés, de premiers primates, de premiers hominidés ou de premières sociétés. L'idée du premier homme est absurde. Par une lente évolution, un primate se transforme en d'innombrables possibilités d'hommes dont une seule en des millions d'années parviendra à s'imposer. Il y a quelque chose de frappant dans le passage du naturel au culturel. Que fait l'homme quand il commence à créer d'une manière culturelle? Il refait intellectuellement ce que la nature avait fait naturellement. L'homme s'est inspiré du dard pour se faire une épée, de la carapace pour se faire une cuirasse... L'homme recrée et optimise ce dont la nature avait doté toutes sortes d'espèces différentes. À partir du moment où la structure des vertébrés s'est stabilisée, elle est devenue invariante et seule la recomposition d'une structure invariante constitue le moteur d'une évolution continue aussi bien naturelle, culturelle que sociale. Il en est de même pour l'évolution politique. Le tsar Nicolas II, Staline, Brejnev, Eltsine, Poutine incarnent en Russie des phases de changements profonds, mais ces changements entrent dans le cadre d'une structure de gouvernance autocratique globalement invariante. Que firent les révolutionnaires de 1789? Ils n'abolirent pas la structure de propriété, mais la renforcèrent en changeant les propriétaires. Ils remplacèrent quarante mille aristocrates par plusieurs millions de bourgeois ou de paysans. Ils participèrent ainsi à la recomposition évolutive d'une invariance, celle de la structure de propriété.

Être, c'est se structurer

Une structure stabilisée ne disparaît jamais. Elle se recompose, se complexifie, s'optimise et entre dans un deuxième niveau de structure, le premier ne disparaissant jamais. Tout système de structuration, à un moment ou à un autre, entre en crise. Les invariances ne sont pas un principe conservateur. Bien au contraire. À partir de la même structure organique des vertébrés, il y a une profusion d'espèces particulières inouïe. Ce sont les invariances et leur recomposition qui permettent une explosion de diversité. C'est également vrai dans le monde culturel. Le cas des croyances religieuses est exemplaire par leur pérennité. Elles ont résisté en tant qu'invariances à toutes les attaques: aussi bien celles des rationalistes progressistes, des partisans de l'intangibilité du dogme ou des découvertes de la science. Toutes les religions ont résisté à tout, digéré les acquis de la science et se sont pliées à toutes les recompositions adaptatives de leur invariance. Aujourd'hui 80% des catholiques acceptent sans problème le darwinisme. C'est donc la continuelle recomposition adaptative des structures, réagencements devenus nécessaires à la préservation de leur invariance, qui constitue le moteur du changement, donc du progrès. Il ressort de cela que tout est toujours là et que tout était déjà là. Il n'y a pas de commencement de l'Histoire. On ne peut savoir quand a commencé le féodalisme au sens du Moyen Âge puisqu'on trouve déjà des structures féodales à Rome ou à Carthage. On trouve aussi des structures précapitalistes dans des sociétés très primitives. Les structures du tribalisme ou de l'esclavagisme restent et se recomposent sans cesse. Que se passe-t-il en Europe après l'abolition de l'esclavage? Une nouvelle recomposition de l'invariance esclavagiste sous la forme de l'exploitation coloniale ou du travail forcé. Qui peut nier que l'esclavage se perpétue aujourd'hui dans divers pays du monde? Y a-t-il une différence de nature entre une esclave noire dans une famille du sud de l'Amérique au XIXe siècle et une «domestique» philippine employée au Qatar et privée de tous ses droits? ■

Propos de Jean-François Kahn, essayiste et polémiste, recueillis par Gilles Anquetil

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Food named after famous people: ABC
Fillet of Beef Prince Albert – Queen Victoria‘s Consort Prince Albert (1819-1861), also has an English white sauce, the Prince Albert Pea, and Prince Albert apple named for him, and probably Albert pudding.
Chicken la d’Albufera – Louis-Gabriel Suchet (1770-1826), one of Napoleon’s generals and marshal of France for a time, was named duc d’Albufera after a lake near Valencia, Spain, to mark his victory there during the Peninsular War. Famed 19th-century French chef Marie-Antoine Carme (Antonin Carme) created several dishes in the duke’s honor, including duck, beef, and the sauce that accompanies this chicken.
Fettuccine Alfredo – Alfredo di Lelio, an early-20th century Italian chef who invented the dish for his wife in 1914-1920 at his Roman restaurant. The dish became famous in part because Mary Pickford and Douglas Fairbanks touted it after their 1927 visit to Rome. The authentic Alfredo recipe contains only several butters, no cream sauce.
Alexandertorte – possibly Alexander I, the gourmet Russian tzar who employed Antonin Carme. Finland claims the creation, allegedly by Swiss pastry chefs in Helsinki in 1818, in anticipation of the tzar’s visit there.
Lobster Duke Alexis – the Russian Grand-Duke Alexis (future Alexander III) (1845-1894) made a highly-publicized visit to the U.S. in 1871. A dinner for him at Delmonico’s featured this, and was kept on the menu by chef Charles Ranhofer.
Gteau Alexandra – like her husband Edward VII, Alexandra of Denmark (1844-1925) was honored by an assortment of foods named after her when she was Princess of Wales and Queen. Besides this chocolate cake, there is consomm Alexandra, soup, sole, chicken quail, and various meat dishes.
Consomm Princess Alice – this consomm with artichoke hearts and lettuce is named for Princess Alice (1883-1981), one of Queen Victoria‘s granddaughters.
Amundsen’s Dessert – Roald Amundsen (1872-1928), the great Norwegian polar explorer, was served this dish by Norwegian-American friends in Wisconsin not long before he died in an Arctic plane crash.
Anna potatoes – the casserole of sliced potatoes cooked in butter was created and named by French chef Adolf Duglr for the well-known 19th-century courtesan/actress Anna Deslions, who frequented Duglr’s Caf Anglais. “Potatoes Annette” is a version of Potatoes Anna, with the potatoes julienned instead of in rounds.
Oreiller de la Belle Aurore – Claudine-Aurore Rcamier, the mother of Jean Anthelme Brillat-Savarin, has a lobster dish named after her, but it is this elaborate game pie which was one of her son’s favorite dishes. The large square pie contains a variety of game birds and their livers, veal, pork, truffles, aspic, and much else, in puff pastry.
Chateau-Ausone red Bordeaux wine – Ausonius (310-395 A.D.), the poet employed by Valentinian I to tutor the Roman emperor’s son, retired to the Bordeaux region and wrote about oyster farming. The wine named after him is said
to be made of grapes grown on the site of his villa.jocuri logice
Baldwin apple – Colonel Loammi Baldwin (1745-1807), a commander of militia at the Battle of Lexington, found this apple between 1784 and 1793 while working as a surveyor and engineer on the Middlesex Canal in Massachusetts. Chicken Cardinal la Balue – Cardinal Jean la Balue (1421-1491), a somewhat notorious minister to Louis XI, is remembered in this dish of chicken, crayfish, and mashed potatoes.
Bartlett pear – accidentally (?) renamed English Williams pear by Massachusetts nurseryman Enoch Bartlett, early 19th century. Williams was a 17th-century English horticulturist.
Battenburg cake – probably named after one of the late-19th century princely Battenberg family living in England, who gave up their German titles during World War I and changed their name to Mountbatten.
Bchamel sauce, named to flatter the matre d’Hotel to Louis XIV, Louis de Bchamel, Marquis de Nointel (1630-1703), also a financier and ambassador.
Barnaise sauce – although often thought to indicate the region of Barn, the sauce name may well originate in the nickname of French king Henry IV (1553-1610), “le Grand Barnais.”dress up games
Ham mousseline la Belmont – August Belmont (1816-1890) was born in Prussia and emigrated to the U.S. to work for the New York branch of Rothschild’s. He became an extremely wealthy banker, married the daughter of Commodore Matthew Perry, and was a leading figure in New York society and American horse-racing. This dish was created at Delmonico’s by Charles Ranhofer, probably for a dinner given there in Belmont’s honor.
Eggs Benedict – at least two main accounts. Lemuel Benedict, a New York stockbroker, claimed to have gone to the Waldorf Hotel for breakfast one day in 1894 while suffering a hangover. He asked for a restorative in the form of toast, bacon, poached eggs, and Hollandaise sauce on the side. The famous matre d’ Oscar of the Waldorf took an interest in Benedict’s order, and adapted it for the Waldorf menu, substituting English muffins and ham, adding truffles, and naming it after Benedict. The other version: in 1893, Charles Ranhofer, head chef of Delmonico’s, created the dish for Mr. and/or Mrs. LeGrand Benedict, New York stockbroker and socialite.
Eggs Benedict XVI – Pope Benedict XVI, born Joseph Alois Ratzinger (1927) now has a Germanic version of the original Eggs Benedict named after him. Rye bread and sausage or sauerbrauten replace the English muffins and Canadian bacon.
Eggs Berlioz – Hector Berlioz (1803-1869), the notable French composer, has his name on a dish of soft-boiled eggs, elevated by the addition of croustades, duchesse potatoes, and truffles and mushrooms in a Madeira sauce.
Sarah Bernhardt Cakes – famous French actress Sarah Bernhardt (1844-1923). The pastry may be Danish in origin. There is a Sole Sarah Bernhardt, and a souffl. “Sarah Bernhardt” may indicate a dish garnished with a pure of foie gras, and Delmonico’s “Sarah Potatoes,” by Charles Ranhofer, are most likely named for the actress.
Lobster Paul Bert – Paul Bert (1833-1886) was a French physiologist, diplomat, and politician, but is perhaps best known for his research on the effect of air pressure on the body. Charles Ranhofer was either a friend or fan of the father of aerospace medicine.
Bibb lettuce – John B. Bibb, mid-19th century amateur horticulturist of Frankfort, Kentucky.
Oysters Bienville – this New Orleans dish of baked oysters in a shrimp sauce was named for Jean-Baptiste Le Moyne de Bienville (1680-1767), French governor of Louisiana and founder of New Orleans (1718).bancuri tari
Bing cherry – Oregon horticulturist Seth Luelling (or Lewelling) developed the cherry around 1875, with the help of his Manchurian foreman Bing, after whom he named it.
Bismarck herring, (Bismarcks, Schlosskse Bismarck) – Otto von Bismarck (1815-1898), chief figure in the unification of Germany in 1870 and first Chancellor of the German Empire, has many foods named after him, including these – pickled herring, pastry, and cheese.
Eggs in a Mold Bizet – Georges Bizet (1838-1875), the French composer of Carmen and other operas, has a consomm named for him as well as these eggs cooked in molds lined with minced pickled tongue, served on artichoke hearts.
Sole Bolivar – named after the famous South American revolutionary Simon Bolivar (1783-1830).
Bonaparte’s Ribs – an early 19th-century English sweet named after Napoleon Bonaparte
Boysenberry – Rudolf Boysen, botanist and Anaheim park superintendent, developed the loganberry/raspberry /blackberry cross around the 1920's. The berry was subsequently grown, named and made famous in the 1930's by Walter Knott of Knott’s Berry Farm in California.
Brillat-Savarin cheese – Jean Anthelme Brillat-Savarin (1755-1826) has many dishes named for him besides this cheese, including partridge, eggs, garnishes, savory pastries, and the Savarin cake. Brillat-Savarin was the influential French author of The Physiology of Taste, in which he advocated viewing cuisine as a science.
Burbank plum – Luther Burbank (1849-1926), renowned American horticulturist, bred many new varieties of plants, including this and the Russet Burbank potato.
Angelina Burdett plum – this plum, bred by a Mr. Dowling of Southampton, England around 1850, was named after Baroness Angelina Burdett-Coutts (1814-1906), a notable philanthropist. The Baroness inherited great wealth from her grandfather, banker Thomas Coutts, and devoted much of it to helping the needy at home and abroad.
Caesar’s mushroom – probably named for Julius Caesar, this mushroom of southern France is also called the King
of Mushrooms. There is also a Caesar potato.
Caesar salad – Caesar Cardini (1896-1956), an Italian who came to San Diego, California after World War I, is generally thought to have created the salad (sans anchovies, except those in the Worcestershire sauce) at his restaurant in 1924. The restaurant was located in Tijuana, most likely to avoid Prohibition in the U.S. As with many popular dishes, there are more claimants to the salad’s invention, including Cardini’s business partner, his brother, and one of his young sous-chefs who said it was his mother’s recipe. Julius Caesar is not involved, except perhaps as the source of Mr. Cardini’s first name.
Chicken filets Sadi Carnot – while it would be a bit unusual if the father of thermodynamics had a dish named after him, it is far more likely that chef Charles Ranhofer had Marie Franois Sadi Carnot (1837-1894) in mind, not his uncle, the physicist Nicolas Lonard Sadi Carnot (1796-1832). However, the nephew was named after the uncle, who was named after a medieval Persian philosopher. The younger Sadi-Carnot was a civil engineer, politician, and government minister who rose to become a popular French president (1887-1894) noted for his integrity. His only crisis in office was the de Lesseps Panama Canal scandal. He was assassinated by an Italian anarchist in 1894.
Chateaubriand – a cut and a recipe for steak named for Vicomte Franois Ren de Chateaubriand (1768-1848), French writer and diplomat. His chef Montinireil is thought to have created the dish around 1822 while Chateaubriand was ambassador to England. There is also a kidney dish named for him.
Chiboust cream – a cream filling invented by the French pastry chef Chiboust in Paris around 1846, and intended to fill his Gteau Saint-Honor. The filling is also called Saint-Honor cream.
Christian IX cheese – honoring King Christian IX of Denmark (1818-1906), this is a caraway-seeded semi-firm Danish cheese.
Clementines – named for Pre Pierre Clment, a French monk living in North Africa at the beginning of the 20th century. Allegedly, he either found a natural mutation of the mandarin orange which he grew, or he created a hybrid of the mandarin and the Seville oranges. The fruit, however, may have originated long before in Asia.
Cleopatra Mandarin orange – presumably, Cleopatra VII (69-30 BC), of the Ptolemaic dynasty, and the last queen of Egypt, is the name source for this orange and the Cleopatra apple.
Peach pudding la Cleveland – Grover Cleveland (1837-1908), 22nd and 24th U.S. president, was given this dish by Charles Ranhofer, who may have felt presidents deserved desserts named after them as much as Escoffier’s ladies, even if Cleveland was reputed to not much like French food.
Cobb Salad – Robert H. Cobb, owner of the Hollywood Brown Derby restaurant, who is said to have invented the salad as a late-night snack for himself in 1936-1937.
Scrambled eggs la Columbus – Christopher Columbus (1451-1506), the Italian sailor who claimed the New World for Spain, has a dish of scrambled eggs with ham, fried slices of blood pudding and beef brains named after him.
Charlotte Corday – Charlotte Corday (1768-1793), the assassin of the radical Jean-Paul Marat was paid tribute with an ice cream dessert by Charles Ranhofer of Delmonico’s.
Cox’s Orange Pippin – apple named after its developer Richard Cox (1777-1845), a retired brewer, in Buckinghamshire, England..Motorcycle games

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